Small rivers have an important natural and economic importance, so their study is relevant. The purpose of the article is to study underground nutrition in the basin of the river. Mesh. The object of study is the pool itself, and the subject is the underground feeding of the rivers in this basin.

The history of knowledge of groundwater probably lasts for as many years as there is a conscious person. Almost from the beginning, the origin of ideas about their origin expressed a variety of views on the nature of water in the bowels. To date, there are the following theories: infiltration, condensation, juvenile, sedimentation and anthropogenic. Underground waters are classified according to a variety of characteristics, but four main groups can be distinguished: physical (temperature, organoleptic, pressure, phase state), chemical, genetic, hydrogeological or general geological (segregate formation and fissure-vein types of water, as well as waters of special forms departments of these types) [1,2,3].

The process of groundwater entering surface waterways and reservoirs is commonly called the general term underground feeding of rivers. To the category of “groundwater” by the form of water in the soil-soil is “the retaining free gravitational moisture of the aquifer”. The relationship between groundwater and surface water is characterized by two opposite processes: underground feeding of surface waterways and reservoirs and underground losses of river waters to subsurface water. Both these processes in river basins proceed in a complex combination over the catchment area and in time. Geological structure, lithological composition, climatic factors, soil cover, vegetation are all factors that influence the surface and underground component of river flow [8,9].

The article studies underground nutrition in the Mesha river basin, the right tributary of the Kama, located in the Kukmorsk, Sabinsky, Tyulyachin, Pestrechinsk, and Laishevsky municipal districts of the Republic of Tatarstan. The basis of the geological structure of the Meshi basin is the ancient rocks of the Kazan and Tatar stages of the Permian system and the Quaternary breed. The Meshi catchment area is a hilly plain, divided by valleys of numerous tributaries, gullies and ravines, sharply asymmetric in shape with a general slope of the surface to the south-west. The total drop in the catchment area is 82 m, the average gradient is 0.4 ‰, the average height is 140-160 m, the average width is almost 20-21 km. The Meshi basin is located in the temperate continental climate zone and is characterized by cold winters (average January temperature -13˚С) and warm summers (July average temperature + 19˚С). the predominant soils are forest (light gray, gray, dark gray and brown-gray soils of podzolic type) and sod-podzolic, and the vegetation of the basin is represented by dark coniferous-broad-leaved forests, agricultural lands in the place of deciduous forests and floodplain meadows. Mesha is a typically flat river with mixed food, the drainage of which is formed by an underground tributary, meltwater and rainfall, the river receives 46 tributaries. For the hydrological regime of Meshi, two periods are characteristic: intergalactic (late May – early June and early November) and high water (70-80% of annual runoff), continuous ice cover is set at the end of November.

The difficulty of studying the underground feeding of small rivers is due to the insufficient study of the water regime of small rivers and the large extent of small river systems located in a variety of physical and geographical conditions. In this regard, many ways of studying underground feeding of rivers have been proposed. Among the hydrologists, the hydrological method, consisting in the dismemberment of the hydrograph by types of feeding, will spread. The minimum flowrate is taken according to the steady [10] or minimum winter consumption [7] or the same flow of the dry year [5] and consider this value to be uniform throughout the year. However, as it turned out, the minimum flow on the hydrograph will not always reflect the true value of the underground supply of the river – the hydrological method gives a very approximate picture and is not suitable for judging the true value of underground power. The next method is hydrogeological, BI Biashev played an important role in his development. Kudelin, who proposed a method by which the value of underground power is determined by increasing the flow rate of the river in the area between two gauging stations [4]. But this method was also not perfect, since it is impossible to establish a unified nature of underground feeding, based on observations of a few wells due to the different ratio of river and groundwater and the variety of hydrogeological conditions. The most suitable method turned out to be the hydrometric method, which consists in determining the increment between water discharges, which are measured at unchanged horizons in two gauging stations, taking into account the flow of all tributaries and springs, hydraulically with the river unrelated, which are located between the two sections [6, 11] .

Hydrometric work in the Mesh River basin was carried out in order to clarify the distribution of the low-cost water discharge and their modules along the river basin network and the intensity of underground feeding. 36 expenditures were measured (6 on Meshe, 30 on inflows of different orders). To avoid various errors that arise during the measurement, graphs of the change in water flow along the river are constructed, which are the main document that allows obtaining the value of water discharge at any point in the basin (Fig. 1). The graphically averaged water discharge, taken from the graphs, becomes the basis for the change in the measured water flow along the river.

Fig.1. The graph of the change in water flow along the length of the river. Kysa

To compare the availability of underground power for different sites and different rivers, the modules of underground power are determined. For tributaries, they are determined by the ratio of the private watersheds to the ratio of the measured wellhead to the catchment catchment area, for private watersheds to the ratio of the water flow increment for the given site (removed from the graph) to the increment in the catchment area of the same site (Table 1).

Table 1. Fragment of calculations of the module of an underground feed

 

 

 

 

 

Based on the calculations, a map of the intensity of the underground supply is drawn up, showing an extremely uneven distribution of its numerical values. But each value can be explained with the help of an analysis of the geological-tectonic structure of the territory and the hydro-geological conditions of river feeding (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Intensity of underground food in the basin of the river. Mesh

If the river cuts a positive structure in the aquifer supply area, but does not open them, the river runoff is expended on groundwater feeding. If this occurs in the unloading area, then when the aquifers are opened, an abnormally high underground supply is observed. To the interstructural saddles, for example, are sites with increased underground feeding, since there is an inflow of groundwater from a vast underground catchment area or the flow of pressure water through a fractured zone of depression.

A significant role belongs also to tectonics and lithological composition of rocks – a slight drop in the roof of the Lower Kazan deposits from the north to the south ensures a uniform supply of groundwater to the tributaries, however, separate uplifts and depressions create a local redistribution of the ground flow. In the upper course of the areas where the channel is confined to a tectonic trough, Mesha receives ground nutrition at a rate of 1.5 l ∙ sec / km2.

On the meridional current section, on the right slope, the river flows along the local tectonic slope, the slope of the stratigraphic horizons of which is directed from it – this is what facilitates the drainage of groundwater from the channel and, accordingly, the reduction of the underground power modules to zero. In addition, the p. Nyrsa, passing through the zone of discharge of groundwater into the channel of Meshi. But in the basin of the rivers Nurminka and Tymty-Bash, the water content increases to 3 liters / sec / km2 – the extensive uplift in their interfluves causes a deviation from the total ground flow. (2 l • sec / km2) It should be noted that for the upper stream of the river. Nurminka and its right tributary r. Kobyakovka is also characterized by a fairly high groundwater supply (2 l ∙ sec / km2), which is associated with the confinement of this part of the river network to tectonic depressions.

The value of the water content of the river network is affected by the frequent discrepancy between the surface and underground watersheds. For example, the runoff of the eastern and western Ushni rivers located in the redistribution of the Kurkachinsky uplift is formed by numerous sources of pressure water associated with the aquifers of the Lower Kazan deposits and is characterized by the magnitude of the underground feeding modules up to 2-3 l ∙ sec / km2.

In the lower reaches of Mesha, where sandy-argillaceous deposits are developed, cultivated by agricultural production, the infiltration properties of soils and, as a consequence, the loss of thawed runoff to groundwater feeds increase. In spite of the fact that underground power modules do not exceed 2 l ∙ sec / km2 here, their value can decrease drastically in the time-consuming periods.

Thus, it can be said that the value of underground food is a complex indicator, changing its value depending on many factors, the most significant of which are tectonics and lithological composition of rocks, relief, and the discrepancy between the surface and underground watersheds.

 

Length: 2 428 km
The area of the basin: 237 000 km2

Geography.

Originates on the slopes of the top Round hill (mountain range uraltau) in the Uchaly region of Bashkortostan. Flows into the Caspian sea. At the beginning of the Ural flows from North to South, and meeting the same lofty plateau Kazakh steppe, turns to the North-West, the Orenburg changes direction to the South-West,, Uralsk the river makes a new sharp bend to the South and in this main direction wriggling then to the West towards the East, flows into the Caspian sea. The mouth of Ural is divided into several branches and gradually increasing. In 1769 Pallas counted nineteen sleeves, part of which was allocated in the Urals 50 metres above the confluence with the sea; in 1821 and was only nine, in 1846, only three: Yaitsky, Tolochinskoe and Peretakso. By the late 50’s and early 60-ies of XIX century up to the town of Guriev no sleeves with a constant stream from the Urals almost no separation. The first sleeve, otdeleniya from the main channel of the left was Perets shared between the ducts on Peretakso and Aleksashkin. Still below the bed of the Urals was divided into two branches – Solocinskij and Yaik, with both the first and the second was divided into two mouth: Large and Small Yaitsky, Big and Old Tolochinskoe. From Zolotistogo sleeves East departed one sleeve, Bucharka flowing into the sea between Perlasca and Gold. The Ural basin occupies the largest sixth place among Russian rivers and equals to 237 000 km². The stretch of the river is estimated at 2428 km. Horizon of water is an absolute altitude of 635 m.

Falling waters of the Ural are not particularly large; from upper to Orsk it is about 0.9 meters to 1 kilometer from Orsk to Uralsk not more than 30 cm to 1 kilometre, below – even less. The width of the channel generally small, but diverse. The bottom of the Urals, in the river rocky, in the most part of his clay and sandy, and within the Ural region there are stone ridge. Under the Ural river bottom lined with small pebbles, which occurs several large «White mountains»; special pebbles from the dense clay, moreover, comes in some areas of the lower reaches of the Ural («burnt Luka»). The Ural river is quite winding down and forms a large number of loops. The Urals, with a small drop of water, all over, they often change the main channel, breaks new moves, leaving in all directions deep waters, or «old women». Due to the changeable currents Ural many Cossack villages, former earlier in the river, were subsequently on the Bayou, the residents of other settlements were forced to move to new places only because the old ruins of them were gradually eroded and destroyed by the river. In General, Ural valley indented on both sides of the oxbow lakes, narrow channels, extended channels, lakes, small lakes; during the spring vodoroslei occurring on snowmelt in the Ural mountains, all of them are filled with water, which is kept in the other until next year. In the spring of the river and small rivers are the Ural mass melt water, the river overflows, out of the banks, in the same places, where the sloping shores, river overflows, 3-7 meters. Ural little navigable. There are sturgeon, starred sturgeon, carp, sheatfish, pike, bream, catfish, chubak. Also from the river is a water pipeline to the oil industry.

Contrary to popular misconception, the Ural river is a natural water boundary between Asia and Europe only in its upper reaches in Russia. The border is, in Verkhneuralsk and , Magnitogorsk, Chelyabinsk region. In Kazakhstan the geographical border between Europe and Asia passes South of Orsk on ridge Mugodzhary. Thus, the Ural river is the internal European river, only Russian upper river to the East of the Ural mountains belong to Asia. Preliminary results conducted in April – may 2010 expedition of the Russian geographical society in Kazakhstan showed that the border of Europe and Asia in the Ural river, as well as on the Emba not have sufficient scientific reasons. The fact that South Chrysostom Ural ridge, losing axis, falls into several parts, then mount and does have gradually disappeared, there disappears the main landmark in the border. The river Ural and Emba nothing to divide, as a country they intersect, identical.

Commercial use.

The Urals, generally not navigable, but it is in small size timber floating in the city of Orenburg, and Uralsk. Below Uralsk alloy Pets spring special tickets, and, as an exception.

Length: 744 km
The basin area: 357 000 km2

Northern Dvina river is the major river of the North zone of the European Russia and the White sea basin; compiled from Sabinsk island’s connection with the city of Velikiy Ustyug, rivers Sukhona and Yug. Northern Dvina river irrigates of Vologda and Arkhangelsk region, and, after walking about 673 km, flows from the Southeast to the Dvina Bay of the White sea, in 40 kilometers below the city of Arkhangelsk. First Northern Dvina river flows North, with a difference on the East by Ustyug’s gorge for 63 kilometers, up to the confluence with the Vychegda river which is a tributary of the Northern Dvina, while the mass of water, channel width and things far exceeds the upper Northern Dvina. From the mouth of the Vychegda river Northern Dvina takes the direction to the North-West, which saves throughout the rest of their flow. River region of the Northern Dvina river stretches from 320 to 340 000 000 square kilometers. Northern Dvina river is very calm during which receives considerable speed only on the tunes. The river flows through a wide valley, on both sides fenced by high banks, consisting partly of lime, as part of the layers of sand. One or the other of the two banks, alternating between them, come to the river significant slope. To the mouth of the Vychegda river Northern Dvina little change its original course, which is almost without any changes every spring to care of high water.

Geography.

Length – 744 km, the length of the river Sukhona – 1300 km length with Vychegda river – 1803 km. According to the state water register the length of the water way from the river Kubena to North Dvina is 1 683 km area of the basin – 357 thousand km². Malaya Severnaya Dvina is formed by the confluence of the Sukhona and the Yug (the town of Velikiy Ustyug in Vologda region). Then flows northward to Arkhangelsk region. Near the town of Kotlas Small Northern Dvina river merges with the Vychegda (it should be noted that the Vychegda merging carries more water than the Malaya Severnaya Dvina), then turn North-West, and then gradually to the North. Almost in the very North merges with the Pinega river. The Delta of the Northern Dvina (the area of the Delta, about 900 km²) starts from Novodvinsk. Near Arkhangelsk and Severodvinsk flows into the Dvina Bay of the White sea. Below the mouth of the Northern Dvina river Pinega is divided into streams with numerous Islands, the width of the valley rises to 18 km. The Arkhangelsk river again going in one direction, but below the city forms the Delta square of 900 km², consisting of several sleeves.

Hydrology the river.

The river is filled with water, mainly due to snow. The average consumption of water at the confluence of the Sukhona and Yug 770 m³/s at the mouth 3490 m³/S. the Largest scale fluctuations between the mouths of the rivers Vaga and Pinega to 14 m Freezes at the end of October-beginning of November, it is opened from early April to early may. The break-up of rapid and frequent congestion.

Commercial use.

Shipping along the Northern Dvina begins immediately upon its opening in a few days, come to Arkhangelsk barks «from above» and soon arrive commercial and fishing vessels from the sea. Continues shipping up to half of October, ships due to the shallow waters are sometimes river voyage not until July or even August. In September the water comes. The length of the rivers of the basin S. Dvina equal 7693 km, of which 658 km driftwood ways exclusively for timber in rafts, 1223 km for Laden ships and 4294 km navigable at both sides.

The River Pechora
Length: 1809 km
The area of the basin: 322 000 km²

The Pechora river in the Republic of Komi and the Nenets Autonomous district of the Russian Federations river is 1809 km. Freezes in late October, the showdown takes place with the support of formations of ice jams. The source of the river Pechora is located in the Pechora-Ilych reserve, close to one of the wonders of the Russia – plateau Manpupuner. Flows Pechora in the Pechora Bay of the so-called Pechora sea.

Geography.

Length – 1809 km, basin area – 322 thousand km². Takes river beginning in the Northern Urals, in the South-Eastern part of the Republic of Komi, and flows at first mainly South-West. From the source to the mouth of the river Ugni Pechora has a mountainous character. At settlement Yakshi (after the confluence of Volostnych) turns North and flows along the Pechora lowland to Ust-Moustache. After the mouth of the river Mustache turns West, forming a wide knee with two large bends. Channel width up to 2 km in the valley appear vast floodplain meadows.

In Ust-Tsilma (after the confluence of the rivers Tansy and Tsilma) Pechora turns North again, on this part of its broad floodplain cut through by numerous canals («balls») and old women. About 130 km from the mouth of Pechora into two branches – Eastern (Large Pechora and Western (Small-Pechora). Below, in the district Naryan-Mar, the river forms a Delta width of about 45 km and flows in Pechorskaya Guba, Pechora sea. Tide currents spread to the South to the village of Oksino.

Hydrology the river.

The food is mixed, with more snow. Flood begins in late April – early may, the maximum – in the middle of may in the middle stream and downstream until the beginning of June. In summer and winter low-water period. Summer low-water period is from mid July to August, is often interrupted by rain floods. The average discharge at the mouth 4100 m³/sec. Freezes in late October, the showdown takes place in the upper reaches, and is accompanied by ice jams.

Commercial use.

Regular navigation is possible to Troitsk-Pechora, in spring and autumn – to Ust-Ugni. The vessels going up the river to Naryan-Mar (110 km from the mouth). Fishing (salmon, whitefish, vendace). In the Pechora pool there are deposits of coal, oil and gas.

The Volga is the largest river in the European part of Russia and the largest river of Europe.

Total length of the river Volga 3530 km, basin area of 1,360 thousand km

Originates in the Valdai highlands at an altitude of 228 m, from a spring in the village Volgo-Upper reaches of the Tver region and crossing the entire territory of Central Russiaе flows into the Caspian sea. In the upper reaches on the territory of upland flows through the so-called system of Upper-Volga lakesе. From the point of view of amateur fishery between the Tver and Rybinsk in the Volga river basin, there are three interesting reservoir: Rybinsk reservoir, Ivankovsky water reservoir (the so-called Moscow sea) with a dam and hydroelectric power station near the city of Dubna and Uglich reservoir.

Further downstream to Yaroslavl and below the Kostroma river has paved its way in a narrow valley between high and picturesque banks. Just above the Nizhny Novgorod built Gorky hydroelectric power station dam, forming the Gorky reservoir. Important tributaries of the Volga river in the upper reaches of this river Tvertsa, Mologa, Selizharovka and Unzha. In midstream, downstream of its confluence with the river Oka, Volga becomes more affluent. In the district of city of Cheboksary built Cheboksary HPP, above a dam which is the Cheboksary reservoir area 2190 km2. The most important tributaries of the Volga river in its middle reaches popular among fishermen Oka river, and the river Sura, Vetluga and Sviyaga. In the downstream, after the confluence of the Kama, Volga becomes a truly powerful Russian river. It flows through here along the Volga upland. In the district of Togliatti above the dam of the Volga hydroelectric plant, the largest in the Volga Kuybyshev water reservoir. The tributaries of the lower reaches of the Volga relatively small river Samara, Juice, Eruslan and Big Irgiz. 21 km above Volgograd from the Volga river separates the left sleeve – famous in the European part of Russia fishing Eldorado – river Akhtuba, which runs parallel to the main watercourse and forms together with the Volga unique fishing region, called the Volga-Akhtuba floodplain with its many canals, rich in various species of fish.

Between the start of the river Akhtuba and Volgograd built Volzhskaya HPP, above a dam formed the Volgograd reservoir.

And, finally, the Delta of the Volga is the longest river Delta in Europe, and perhaps the most rich in fish region of the Volga basin. Starts above Astrakhan in place of branch from the main channel of the Volga river Buzan and counts up to 510 sleevesн streams and small rivers. Most large arms river Bakhtemir Kamyzyakл Staraya Volga and Akhtuba. In connection with the lowering of the level of Caspian sea area of the Delta has grown over the past 130 years, nine times.