Over the past two centuries in the production of military weapons there has been a tendency to reduce caliber. It is obvious to everyone that it is impossible to create the perfect weapon, so the designers are trying to make a rifle that will surpass all analogues. In 1974, a significant event occurred in the Soviet army: the AK-74 machine gun was used, which used a 5.45 mm caliber. Skepticism about this was quite unhealthy, and he was so ingrained that until now, some say that the 7.62 mm caliber was better. All technical characteristics in this article are taken from the work “That, from which they shoot in the CIS. Handbook of small arms “Alexander Bogolyubov.

Why did the change in caliber.

In addition to the trend mentioned above, there were 3 key reasons.

Former Chief Designer of FSUE “TsNIITOCHMASH” Shiryaev D.I. noted that during the first practical tests of ak-47 with a caliber of 7.62 mm, it turned out that when firing from an unstable position (for example, standing) in automatic mode, only 1-2 bullets fly at the target. This deficiency was planned to be eliminated at the factory revision, but this was not possible. For designers, it was obvious that using 7.62 mm caliber would be impossible to achieve.

Moreover, in the 60s, the Americans successfully switched to the 5.60 mm caliber with their M16A1, and at that time, this was a much more weighty argument, because once in the west they were able to create an accurate automatic rifle for shooting from unstable positions, and at the same time they used significantly smaller caliber, then the development in this area should bear fruit.

However, the main reason was the technical characteristics, which gave the rifle a new reduced caliber. To understand what the benefits of switching to 5.45 mm were, let’s look at its advantages over the outdated 7.62 mm.

Advantages and disadvantages.

The caliber of 5.45 mm has a smaller cross-sectional area. Many advantages of the new caliber immediately follow from this: a more flat trajectory of the bullet’s flight, a greater range of a shot, high accuracy, and also the preservation of a destructive force at a greater distance. It should also be borne in mind that since such bullets were 6 grams lighter (10.2 grams versus 16.2 from 7.62 mm), with 8 stores ammunition, each soldier will receive a weight saving of 1.4 kg, which is a very big advantage combat conditions. In addition, the structural features of the bullet make it “tumble” when hitting the target, thereby increasing the damage inflicted.

As disadvantages, it is worth emphasizing that the caliber of 7.62 mm due to the greater mass is less susceptible to the influence of weather conditions, that is, it shows itself a little better in combat operations in the mountains or forest areas.

Based on the foregoing, it becomes obvious that the transition to a caliber of 5.45 mm was a weighted and timely decision that allowed the Soviet machine guns to continue competition on an equal footing with Western counterparts.

After the capture of Moscow, Hitler, in accordance with the plan for Operation Typhoon, intended to complete the campaign against the USSR. Let us reflect on how the course of the war could develop in the event of a hypothetical fall of the Soviet capital.

Not in our favor

Writer Vyacheslav Shpakovsky in his anti-utopia “If Hitler took Moscow” tried to model an alternative scenario of the Second World War. It turned out not very optimistic. According to the plot of Shpakovsky, on October 8, 1941, after fierce battles, the Soviet capital fell. In the summer of next year, at the height of the battle on the Volga Duga, the Germans deal a crushing blow to the Red Army and break through to the Baku oil. At this time, Rommel defeats the British in Palestine, and Japan, having defeated the Pacific fleet of the USA in the battle at Midway, declares war on the USSR … Military experts say that Germany had at least theoretical chances to master Moscow until the end of 1941 . If the campaign “Barbarossa” began not in June, but in May, as planned, the Germans could already in August, under favorable weather conditions, launch a decisive offensive against the Soviet capital.

Publicist Timur Sherzad writes that much then testified in favor of Germany. At the beginning of the war, the German armed forces had an undeniable advantage over the Red Army, since the latter had not yet completed the rearmament process. An equally serious problem for the Soviet General Staff, Sherzad continues, was the lack of experienced commanders – the consequences of the Civil War and Stalin’s “purges” affected. The repressed officers had to be replaced by someone, the only way was to increase the rank of their junior military comrades who did not possess sufficient skills for a more responsible post. In addition, middle commanders in the Red Army often did not have the “officer” experience of actual combat operations. In the German army there was a different picture. A significant part of the higher officers of the Wehrmacht had not only a two-year experience of the European campaign, but the First World War. In the summer and autumn of 1941, with the concomitant circumstances, such an advantage could bring Germany fruit in the Moscow direction.

The fate of Europe

The Belgian military leader and ultra-right politician Leon Degrel assumes that Hitler could enter the Kremlin “from which he was a quarter of an hour away by tram”, how he entered Vienna in 1937, to Prague in 1939 or Compiegene 1940 year.

“What would become of Europe?” – the first thing that worries the Belgian. Hitler would unite Europe by force, this is undeniable. However, this would not be done by democratic methods, “Degre believes. It is likely that with this development of events, part of Europe would work for the Reich industry, the other would serve as a resting place for the German elite. However, most researchers are concerned with the more global consequences of the alleged capture of Moscow. For example, the author, published under the pseudonym Frank Christopher Tike, suggests that this would lead to a quick victory of the Reich. In this case, according to his forecasts, the losses of the German army would be 200-250 thousand soldiers, the Soviet – 600-700 thousand. The further course of events in Taiku history is the following. In 1943-44, the Germans invented nuclear weapons and threatened them by the United States. By 1955, Germany carried out the first manned flight into space, a few years later the Germans landed on the moon.

In parallel, another superpower is emerging – Japan, which takes possession of Sakhalin, China and many countries of the Far East. The State of Israel would never have appeared, since the Jewish people in most countries under the pressure of fascism would be exterminated. The single world currency on the planet would be the German Reichsmark “with the image of the greatest warlord and conqueror on Earth, Hitler” and the Japanese yen. England, according to the scenario of Taika, is included in the lands of the Third Reich, and the US is turning into a “quiet, inconspicuous state” with a ban on the development and testing of nuclear weapons. Islam, having lost the oil and money foundations in the “Germanic world,” no longer has any noticeable influence.

According to the prepared scenario

And what after the fall of Moscow could happen to the USSR? Many military experts say that in case of surrender of the Soviet capital and government, the plan developed by Hitler before the invasion of the Soviet Union – “Directive No. 32” would be implemented.

In the European part of the mainland Germany was going to dominate with Italy. Russia would have joined the Urals in the “Great Germany”, but previously the European part of the USSR according to the “mission of Oldenburg” was subject to total looting. And further this territory would be divided into 4 inspections: Holstein with a center in the former Leningrad, Saxony in Moscow, Baden in Kiev, Westphalia in Baku. The territory of Western Ukraine, Belarus, the Baltic, the Crimea, the Volga region, Hitler intended to completely clear of local ethnic groups, populated by the Germans and included in the Reich. Kola Peninsula because of the huge number of mines would be used only as a raw material base, and Central Asia was to become an agricultural appendage of the new empire. As soon as the German army was fed enough, shod and dressed, the time of the death of the population of the USSR remaining in the occupation up to the Ural Mountains would have come.

A turning point

BBC columnist John Barber believes that in the case of the surrender of Moscow, the country would not capitulate. However, the Soviet leadership evacuated to Kuibyshev would have been compelled to conclude peace with Hitler, “having given him a significant part of the European territory of the USSR in the hope that the new Treaty of Brest-Litovsk will help him survive.” But the future of the USSR, according to Barber’s assumptions, would be unenviable. Reducing the population in industrial and agricultural regions would undermine the ability of the government in exile to continue the struggle, and until recently the mighty Union would have broken up into many small states. The British journalist believes that the consequences of the collapse of the USSR for the West would be very serious. Given that all the resources of mainland Europe were under Germany’s control, Britain’s position would become hopeless, the threat to the US, which would soon have to confront Japan in the struggle for domination in the East, sharply increased. The battle for Moscow should be considered the turning point of the entire Second World War, – concludes Barber.

The capital is not everything

A number of experts believe that Moscow, as a city to Hitler, was absolutely unnecessary. “Hitler needed an ashes in this place,” says Alexander Grishin, a columnist for Komsomolskaya Pravda. – This was clearly stated in his plans. Hitler needed a pond, a man-made sea on the site of the capital of the USSR “. Many researchers believe that Hitler was well aware that with the fall of Moscow the war would not end, but would only gain another direction. It is necessary to take into account three factors complicating the Wehrmacht’s tasks of conquering the USSR – giant spaces, a harsh climate and human resources. All this multiplied by the heroism and dedication of Soviet citizens could become an insurmountable obstacle to the final subordination of the country’s territory.

The journalist of the Moscow Komsomolets Alexander Minkin suggests that if in the fall of 1941 Kutuzov found himself and left Moscow, Stalin would certainly shoot him. However, if the surrender of Moscow, in those conditions, it would be justified step, – said the expert. “Do not put mountains of corpses under the tracks of tanks. We must be able to fight. The war can not be won by gigantic blood. The war can be won by the mind, “the journalist is sure. According to Minkin, the seizure of the capital in 1941 did not mean that it would be forever. “We would have won all the same, but with fewer losses.” In addition, Minkin is convinced, Britain and the United States would not refuse allied commitments and would support the Soviet Union. However, if victory was not achieved by May 1945, in August an American atomic bomb would fall on Berlin, the journalist suggested.

The resistance continues

“Death from a thousand cuts” would be waiting for Germany in the event of the capture of Moscow, believes the Canadian author Robert Grimmink. The protracted conflict, in his opinion, was unprofitable for Berlin. Under no circumstances would Stalin give up. Russia’s industrial regions east of the Urals, which were beyond the reach of the Nazis, played into Russia’s hands, the Canadian is convinced. For Grimmink it is undeniable that the seizure of Moscow would be a temporary occurrence. He further writes: “The Soviet Union had 18 divisions stationed in Siberia, who were expecting an attack from Japan. Since the Japanese were not going to attack, in case of the seizure of Moscow, these troops would probably be sent to Moscow. ”

The Siberian divisions, well-equipped and prepared for warfare in unusual climatic conditions for the Wehrmacht, would have beaten the capital off the Nazis exhausted by the endless defense, who would not have been ready to fight the fresh forces of the Russians. In this, the Canadian writer does not even doubt. Hitler himself, apparently, hoped only to seize the European part of the USSR and did not look beyond the Ural Range. Here are his words: “Never in the future should military education be allowed west of the Urals, even if we had to fight 100 years to prevent it. All my successors should know that Germany’s position is firm only insofar as there is no other military power to the west of the Urals. ” Almost all experts are unanimous in that if Hitler took Moscow, the capital would be moved beyond the Urals. This would allow the Soviet government to gather strength, build a new industry and, ultimately, regain lost ground. The authors of the historic historic port of HistoryNet are sure of this. It notes that if Russia lost the major cities and branches of the European part, it would still defeat Nazi Germany.

History of the Second world war are so complex and multifaceted that it is often difficult to separate truth from fiction and propaganda from actual statistics. Even the number of dead and wounded can not be accurately set – scientists and researchers have reported a figure of 28 to 43 million people. But one thing they agree: the red Army’s losses were significantly greater than those of the Wehrmacht. The reason is called the unwillingness of the “peace” of the Soviet Union to the war, the sudden rapid attack Hitler. But how close these statements are to the truth? Talking about surprises wrong, Stalin was not stupid, and his care is confirmed by many witnesses. The USSR, rather overestimated his own power, did not consider Germany as a serious enemy.

Technical equipment: with the war than Germany and the USSR

In reality, Stalin knew about the danger emanating from Germany, and were preparing, creating, for example, the food base in the Volga, which could be useful “in case of possible complications in the field of international relations.” The number came down the Assembly line of tanks for ten years, was increased seven times. However, to achieve the German indicators failed, the Soviet Union’s level of armament was lower than in the First world, a 152-millimeter howitzers were only 690 shells. Their total number reached 10 million by 1942, while the Wehrmacht was 18 million shells. Germany produced two times more powder than the Soviet defense industry until 1944. On the arms of the Soviet Union was still a lot of obsolete tanks BT-2 and BT-5, and light tankettes T-37 and T-38. Heavy tanks are able to effectively fight on equal terms with the modern German, was only 15% of the total. On secondary lines the situation was even worse. A simple example: “the Second Baltic front depth of fire damage amounted to no more than 800 metres. The German artillery could hit targets at a distance of 3-4 kilometers. In order to get close to the enemy, had to go under fire.” Another sad excerpt from the statistics: “up To 70% losses in the ranks of the red army had shrapnel wounds” (historian K. Gaivoronsky). Stalin later wrote that he wanted to defer the beginning of the war until 1942, the end of the five-year plan, but Hitler started the offensive sooner. Germany rightly feared the Soviet Union, and the Barbarossa plan was, rather, a desperate attempt to maintain superiority, and so successful implementation surprised even the leadership of the Wehrmacht.

Human factors

Personnel are of great importance, especially if we are talking about officers. A competent commander capable of inflicting damage to the enemy, maximally saving the lives of soldiers. The layman is guided by emotion and will ruin people actually wonder. But experienced officers were not. As of 1917, the number was 216 thousand people. The beginning of the war with Germany was only a few hundred. And the most experienced of them died in military disaster of 1941. The Bolsheviks did not trust the members of the Russian officer corps, so they were shot, exiled, or deprived of the opportunity to occupy leadership positions in the army. Those who retained their positions, had sufficient combat experience. Moreover, many of them are so afraid of senior management that were ready to leave soldiers to die, but not to deviate from the order. Most clearly these events are described in the memoirs of Nikolai Nikulin, veteran decorated, which in the 311-th infantry division came to Berlin. “There are no such fortresses which could not take Bolsheviks” – the slogan of troops were sent to storm the impregnable heights. “Not one step back” – retreat could be the reason for the punishment chain of command. And contrary to stereotypes, the problem was not Stalin or the generals. In war the middle part of the commander, members of the NKVD often had the worst traits of human nature, caring only about his well-being.

Prisoner means a traitor

The inhabitants of the occupied territories, as well as captured soldiers instantly lost the trust of the government. Their welfare is not cared for, moreover, it was believed that they had betrayed the country, got scared and showed cowardice and the shame can be washed away only with blood. There is historical documentary evidence of the bombing of camps with Soviet prisoners of war planes of the red army. A vivid example – “black blazers”, the inhabitants of the liberated Soviet Union from occupation by the Wehrmacht areas. Men were sent to fight the first line, not giving any firearms, or even shape. Encountering the German machine gunners with a pitchfork in his hands, they died in the first battle, since escape was not possible, because for them there were ZO (protective forces). This attitude to prisoners of war in many respects became the reason of mass betrayal – of the survivors are almost two and a half million 950 thousand prisoners have joined the notorious anti-Soviet ROA. In 1943 the red army managed to turn the tide in their favor. Formed a “seasoned” officers, commanders have learned from the mistakes. And now the Germans began to report enormous losses, the disruption of food supplies and falling morale in the army. But the price of this experience is too high – millions of dead fathers, sons, brothers, wives, sisters and daughters of those who have not seen the cherry blossoms in may 1945.

Source: Why the loss of the red Army was more than the Nazis
© Russian Seven russian7.ru

History of the Romanov dynasty can be read as a detective. At every step – their white spots. The origin of the dynasty, the story of the emblem and the circumstances of their accession to the throne all this still causes ambiguous interpretations of historians.

1. Prussian origin dynasty.

The ancestor of the Romanov dynasty assumed Boyar Andrew Mare at the court of Ivan Kalita and his son Simeon the Proud. We almost nothing is known about his life and origins. Chronicles mention it only once: in 1347 he was sent to Tver for the bride of the Grand Duke Simeon the Proud, the daughter of the prince of Tver Alexander Mikhailovich.

Caught in association with the new Russian state center in Moscow in the service of the Moscow branch of the princely dynasty, he so chose the “golden ticket” for himself and his family. There are numerous mentions of his descendants who became the ancestors of many noble Russian families: Stallion Semen (Lodygin, Konovnitsyn), Alexander Tree (Kolycheva) Gabriel Gavsha (Bobrykiny) Childless Basil Ventoux and Fedor Cat – the ancestor of the Romanovs, Sheremetevs, Yakovlev Goltyaevyh and Bezzubtsevyh. But the origin of the Mare is a mystery. According to legend, the family of the Romanovs, he led his lineage of the Prussian kings.

When a gap in the genealogies – it provides an opportunity for their falsification. In the case of noble birth is usually done either to legitimize their power, or to obtain extra privileges. As in this case. White spot in the genealogies of the Romanovs was filled in the XVII century under Peter I, the first King of Arms Russian Stepan Andreyevich Kolychev. New story consistent fashion even when Rurikovich “Prussian Legend”, which was designed to confirm the position of Moscow as successor of Byzantium. Since the origin of the Varangian Rurik did not fit into this ideology, the founder of the princely dynasty was a relative of the emperor Augustus. Following them, “rewrote” the history and the Romanovs.

The family legend, subsequently recorded in the “General armorial of the noble families of the Russian Empire”, States that in the year 305 ad Prussian king Protano gave the Kingdom to his brother Vaidevute, and he became the high priest of his pagan tribe in the city Romanov, where growing evergreen sacred oak.

Before his death Vedevut divided his Kingdom between twelve sons. One of them was Negron, whose family owned a part of modern Lithuania (Samogitia land). His descendants were brothers Russinger and the Gland Kabila, who was baptized in 1280 and 1283 Kabila came to Russia to serve the Moscow Prince Daniil Alexandrovich. After his baptism he was called Mare.

2. Who nurtured False Dmitry?

False Dmitry personality – one of the greatest mysteries of Russian history. Besides the insoluble question of the identity of the impostor, the problem remains of his “shadow” accomplices. According to one version, the conspiracy False Dmitry a hand Romanovs, who fell out of favor under Godunov and senior descendant of the Romanovs – Fedor, pretender to the throne, he was tonsured a monk.

Proponents of this version think that the Romanovs, Shuiskys and Galitsins dreaming about “Crown of Monomakh”, organized a conspiracy against Godunov, using the mysterious death of a young Tsarevich Dmitry. They prepared their contender for the royal throne, known to us as the False Dmitry, and led coup June 10, 1605. After, to deal with its most important competitor, themselves involved in the struggle for the throne. Later, after the accession of the Romanovs, their historians have done everything to link the massacre of his family Godunov False Dmitry exclusively with personality, and the hands of the Romanovs left clean.

3 Mystery Zemsky Sobor in 1613.

The election of Mikhail Romanov to reign was simply doomed to be covered with a thick layer of myths. How is it that in a country torn by civil strife to reign chose a young inexperienced young man, who at 16 years was neither military talent, no sharp political mind? Of course, the future king was influential father – Patriarch Filaret, who himself had once aspired to the imperial throne. But during the Zemsky Sobor he was a prisoner of the Poles, and hardly could somehow affect the process. According to the generally accepted version of the decisive role played by the Cossacks, who represented at that time a powerful force to be reckoned with. First, in False Dmitry II they were the Romanovs in one camp”, and secondly, they are certainly suited the young and inexperienced Prince, which was no danger to their liberties, have been handed down during the troubles.

Shout Cossacks forced adherents Pozharsky to offer to take a break in two weeks. During this time, started a broad campaign in favor of Michael. For many of the boyars, he also represents the ideal candidate, would allow them to keep the power in their hands. The main argument put forward was that the supposedly deceased king Fedor before his death wanted to pass the throne to his cousin Theodore Romanov (Patriarch Filaret). And as he languished in Polish captivity, the crown passed to his only son – Michael.

4 non-Existent arms.

In the history of dynastic coat of arms of the Romanov white spots is not less than the very history of the dynasty. For some reason, a long time in the Romanovs did not have his coat of arms, they used the national emblem, depicting the two-headed eagle as personal. Their own family coat of arms was created only under Alexander II. By the time of the Russian nobility heraldry practical shape, and only the ruling dynasty did not have its own coat of arms. Inappropriate would say that the dynasty is not fueled much interest in heraldry, even when Alexis came “Royal titulary” – a manuscript containing portraits of Russian monarchs with coats of arms of the Russian lands.

Perhaps, like fidelity two-headed eagle is due to the need for Romanov to show legitimate succession from Rurik and, most importantly, from the Byzantine emperors. As you know, starting with Ivan III, Russia begin to talk about how the successor of the Byzantine Empire. Moreover, that the king married Sophia Paleologos, granddaughter of the last Byzantine emperor Constantine. They took the symbol of the Byzantine double-headed eagle as his family crest.

In any event, this is just one of the many versions. It is not known why the ruling branch of the vast empire, which was related with noble houses of Europe, so persistently ignored orders heraldic, folding lids.

The long-awaited emergence own arms under Alexander II Romanov only added questions. For the execution of the Imperial order came from the king of arms of Baron B.V. Kene. The basis was taken prapor magistrates Nikita Ivanovich Romanov, at one time the main opposition leader Alexei Mikhailovich. Rather its description as the banner itself by the time it was lost. It was a golden griffin on a silver background with a little black eagle with raised wings and lion heads on the tail. Perhaps Nikita Romanov borrowed it in Livonia during the Livonian War.

The new coat of arms of the Romanov is a red griffin on a silver background, holding a golden sword and tharch topped with small eagle; black border on eight severed heads of lions; four gold and four silver. Firstly, it is striking to change the color of a griffin. Heraldry historians believe that Kene decided not to go against the established while the rules that prohibit placing a gold piece on silver background, with the exception of coats of arms of the highest personages as Pope of Rome. Thus, changing the color of a griffin he lowered the status of the coat of arms. Or played the role of “Livonia version”, according to which Kene put an emphasis on the origin of the emblem of Livonia, Livonia since the XVI century was the reverse combination stamp colors: silver griffin on a red background.

On the symbolism of the Romanov coat of arms and still there is a lot of controversy. Why so much attention is paid to a lion’s head, and not the figure of an eagle, which by historical logic should be in the center of the composition? Why was he with wings down, and what, in the end, the historical background of the Romanov coat of arms?

5 Peter III – the last of the Romanov dynasty?

As you know, kind of broke at the Romanov family Nikolay II. However, some believe that the last ruler of the Romanov dynasty was Peter III. The young emperor infantile quite an awkward relationship with his wife. Peter III harbored no feelings for his wife, preferring it to his mistress. But the son – Paul still born many years after marriage.

Rumors of illegitimate heirs uncommon in the history of the world dynasties, especially in turbulent time for the country. So here came the question: is it true Paul – son of Peter III? Or is he the son of the first favorite of Catherine, Sergei Saltykov.

The essential argument in favor of these rumors was that the imperial couple for many years had no children. Therefore, many believed that this union altogether fruitless, hinting at the Empress, mentioning in his memoirs that her husband was suffering from phimosis.

Origin of Paul still remains an unsolved mystery that troubled and subsequent generations of the Romanovs. Unsurprisingly, otherwise it turned out that the Romanov dynasty was interrupted by another of Peter III, and subsequent monarchs on the throne is not more than usurpers. And yet, in justification of Catherine the Great, it is worth saying that the similarity of portraits of Paul and Peter III is obvious.

Ivan Susanin – a folk hero, a symbol of “peasant” loyalty to the king. For 400 years, the name and the legend of the miraculous salvation of the first sovereign of the Romanov dynasty became a part of folklore.

Where did you learn?

The history of the heroic deeds of Ivan Susanin till XIX century his descendants passed from mouth to mouth. The general public learned about it only in 1812, with the release of the story of the writer Sergei Nikolaevich Glinka in the journal “Russian Herald”.

Later, it was based on this publication play “Ivan Susanin” and the famous opera by Mikhail Glinka “Life for the Tsar.” Glinka told the story of Ivan Susanin. In 1613, the expulsion of Poles from Moscow, their gangs looting in the inner regions of Russia. In February this year, the Zemsky Sobor in Moscow proclaimed king, and, moreover, in absentia, Mikhail Romanov. But he Mikhail Fedorovich was at this time in their ancestral lands in the Kostroma region and one of the Polish gang decided to destroy him. But where to find him, the Poles did not know.

Entering the village Domnino, they met a peasant Ivan Susanin and decided he had to extort, where dwells the newly elected king. But Susanin, having seen that the Poles would destroy the young sovereign, not only did not tell them where he is, but also led them to the opposite side. On the way, he went into his house and quietly sent his little son to the king, to warn him of the danger. Having got the Poles in an impenetrable thicket, Ivan Susanin said: “The villains! Here is my head; do with me what you want; Who are you looking for, that you do not get! “. After that, the Poles hacked to death hero, but they get out of the thicket, and the king could not be saved.

Son-in-law heir Susanin.

Thus, the story of Ivan Susanin 200 years found new details of a literary character. Naturally, the dying words of Ivan Susanin invented himself Glinka. Many of the details he added to the story of Susanin “for effect.” But what exactly it was more? What do we really know about Ivan Susanin?

Something you might think. For example, what Susanin was a widower and he had a daughter. In a Royal Charter, this November 30, 1619 (unique and the earliest source about the existence of Kostroma farmer) son-in-law of Ivan Susanin Bogdan Sabinina given half the village with a “whitewash” from all taxes and duties “for service to us, and the blood, and patience…”. There is no doubt that such a document could only be a recognition of the contribution of the family before the king.

Relatives Susanin.

Some suggested that the mother’s name was Susanna Susanin, and he was the village headman are more speculation. But patronymic Susanin – Osipovich, was invented by historians in the XIX century and is not supported by any documents.

However, the fact that the king came down to a simple peasant and two more of Moscow confirmed the privileges are exempt from taxes, in 1633 and 1691 respectively deserves attention.

In the story of Glinka, compared with the text reading and writing, there are two main fictional story. The first – the son of Susanin. As we know, it was the heiress daughter Antonida (including royal privileges), which was only possible in the absence of male offspring. But the son could die before? Studies show that this is not so. Back in 1731 the descendants of Susanin attempt was made to enter into the story of the rescue of the king of another relative – the future husband of his daughter. He was allegedly sent Susanin warn the king of the danger.

However, this invention is not believed and the petition (which was intended to obtain wider benefits) is not approved. Thus, the son and son-in-law Susanin did not exist and were added to the legend about the salvation of the king later. The same can be said about the fact that the Susanin took the poles in the thicket (or swamps). Seventeenth-century documents we only know that the Susanin was not given location of the king, and romantic episode with the blind places, was added later.

Ivan Susanin and DNA

In the early 2000s, the media published several reports about the discovery of the tomb of Ivan Susanin. Archaeologists have based his hypothesis on the fact that several skeletons found during excavations near the village of Domnino were traces of blows with knives, swords possible.

However, they proceeded from the hypothesis that Susanin was buried, that also has to be proved. Criminologists doctors who have studied the remains discovered, while noting the many similarities in the structure of anthropometric found skeletons and descendants Susanin in 8 – 15 generations, declined to uniquely identify the most probable skeleton. Had to decide the fate of the DNA analysis of bones, but the study did not produce any reliable positive results.

Ivan Susanin XX century.

Nevertheless, it is hardly now be doubted that the feat of Ivan Susanin was coined. Documented examples of such actions are well known in the country’s history.

The most famous is the peasant feat Matvey Kuzmin winter of 1942. In the area of his village in the Pskov region battalion of German 1st Mountain Division would like to make a detour the positions of the Soviet troops. As a conductor Germans chose 83-year-old Matthew Kuzmin. However, the one volunteering to lead a detachment, quietly posted 11-year-old grandson of Sergei (it was not already an invention of later narrators) to the location of the Soviet troops and handed him over time and place of ambush.

At the appointed time Matvey Kuzmin brought the Germans on the position of the Soviet heavies. The history of this feat came in the Soviet press, and Matvey Kuzmin was posthumously awarded the title hero of the Soviet Union.

At the same time, he Matvey Kuzmin about Ivan Susanin hardly knew – Pskov hunter was probably illiterate. But if knew that too unsurprisingly. In Russia, as well as later in the Soviet Union, a feat of Ivan Susanin was widely used in mass propaganda. Glinka’s opera “A Life for the Tsar” changed its name to “Ivan Susanin”, the patriotic image of Kostroma peasant turned writers, artists, poets and throughout the XIX and XX centuries. On the real Ivan Susanin we know very little, but more than about any other peasant of the time. Its existence is documented, even by his silence he accomplished the feat, and did not give the young Michael Romanov, who hunted the Poles.

Catherine II was so sure that it will revive the Byzantine Empire that even a grandson named Constantine, and was preparing to give him power. Annexation of the Crimea was part of this ambitious project.

Fall of an Empire.

May 30, 1453 can be considered the date of closure of Byzantium. That same day, after two months of siege, Mehmed II entered Constantinople, and commanded to turn the symbol of Constantinople, St. Sophia Cathedral, into a mosque.

After this victory, the Sultan, who considers itself the successor of Emperor Constantine took the title Caesar of Rome. The fall of the holy city for the whole of Europe was the first sign of the beginning of the end of the world, the more so after this event began many of the plague, and the Turks were advancing farther west. Pope Pius II called a council, which introduced a draft Crusade to Constantinople, but the idea was never implemented.

Grandson Constantine.

Three hundred years later, echoing the designs of Pius II plan matured where this cannot be expected in Russia. The so-called Greek project is the result of discussions by Catherine II and her favorite Potemkin in 1780 because of the success of the Russo-Turkish war of 1768-1774, in particular, the protectorate of Crimea, obtaining the Northern shore of the Black sea and a solid contribution.

Of military success was Archipelago sea expedition, in which the Russian fleet for the first time fought far from the borders of Russia and was able to lay the beginning of the separation of Egypt from the Ottoman Empire. The main goal of this project becomes not only as the capital of the conquest of the entire Orthodox world – Constantinople. The Empress is so inspired by the idea that even named his grandson after Constantine – a name that wore the first and last emperors of Byzantium.

Grandson on the throne!

Dreaming of the Third Rome played a leading role in the politics of rapprochement with Vienna – Russian Empress in 1782 wrote to the Austrian Emperor Joseph II on its plans for the redistribution of Europe.

Catherine hopes that the Emperor “will not refuse to help me in the restoration of the ancient Greek monarchy on the ruins of the fallen barbarous government, are now dominant, while taking me on a commitment to maintain the independence of the restored monarchy of mine.”

Firstly, Catherine insists that Russia does not need new territories, but Moldavia, Wallachia and Bessarabia she chooses to combine into a single buffer state – Dacia, territorial concept which is practically a complete analog of modern Romania. Throne of the hypothetical state takes orthodox emperor to be in league with the great empires – the Russian and the Austrian.

Secondly, Russia and Austria should unite to defeat Porto and take Istanbul, again making it to Constantinople. As conceived by Catherine the reins had to take over her grandson Constantine, however reformed Byzantium would be completely independent.

Empress chariot.

One of the main reasons for the Greek project, the assurances of Catherine, was the fight against the infidels, but Joseph and the king of France, Louis XVI, not in a hurry to believe that plan.

Meanwhile, Catherine conducted an extensive correspondence with the French philosopher Voltaire, who urged the Empress that the “fall of the Ottoman Empire will be glorified in Greek, Athens will be one of your capitals, Greek language will be universal …”, and that only Catherine can “expel the barbarians and make Constantinople the capital of Russian Empire.”

Among the advice of Voltaire was a recommendation to use the capture of Constantinople by the chariot, which is clearly reminiscent of the heroic war of the Greek epic.

Byzantine knot.

Louis supporting the Ottoman Empire after the Russian Union of proposals sent to Turkey for military training its army for war. Joseph also confused by the influence that Russia would acquire in the Balkans, besides, he did not agree with the concept of Dacia.

England also did not support the Greek project.

Meanwhile Catherine surrounds young Constantine Greek nurses and builds near Tsarskoye Selo, a reduced copy of St. Sophia Cathedral.

However, these arrangements were not the only steps to translate the revival of Byzantium – Empress, using the French war in America and an alliance with Austria decided to capture the Crimea as well as the costs of maintaining its independence, become exorbitant, besides, the peninsula would be a good link between the New Russia and Europe.

Christian duty.

Conceived in 1778 by Potemkin in memory of the ancient Greek city of Kherson Chersonesos and its plan to build a Yekaterynoslav (now – Dnepropetrovsk), the future capital of New Russia, becoming one of the many moves in a big game on the accession of Catherine the land to the south.

One of the religious and moral motives to justify the annexation of the Crimea becomes the fact that Vladimir who baptized Rus, he was baptized is in the Chersonese, and in light of the need for the conquest of the Crimea is becoming something of a Christian duty.

While Versailles nourishes vague hopes to make a peacemaker in the war Ports and Russia, Catherine vengeance busy building fortifications on the Crimean Black Sea coast.

As the Russian army was already in the Crimea in 1782, the annexation was fast and Catherine suggested Tatars to swear allegiance to her or to go to Turkey (left 200, 000). New province called Tauridia and former Khan went to Kaluga pressure Prince Tauride – Potemkin engaged in the development of new lands.

After the annexation.

The annexation of the Crimea, surprisingly, quite warmly welcomes both France and Austria. After the capture of the Crimea Russia establishes a protectorate over Georgia at the same time fierce fighting with the Chechens and Dagestani in the North Caucasus, moving everything to the south. Turkey refers to the states of Europe to ask for help, but no country meets her affection.

The result of emerging confrontation was the second Russian-Turkish war of 1787-1791, of which Russia emerged victorious: the border between the Russian Empire and Turkey began to pass on the Dniester River.

However, the Port received while Moldavia and Bessarabia. Gain from this war disappointment Catherine: the great project to revive the Byzantine Empire was never destined to become.

Despite the fact that soon will create a new sea port – Odessa, which inhabit the Greeks, and in the beginning of the XIX century, not long survive a Russian protectorate over the seven Greek islands, Catherine dreams of Constantinople and were only dreams.

Greeks, pleading for the return of the Empress of their homeland and left without if asked, and the only reminder of the grand project was Constantine, who speaks fluent Greek.

That Neptune makes on the arms of the Great Ustyug? Like a Peacock was the emblem of Serpukhov? “Russia is a riddle wrapped or wrapped in a mystery, inside an Enigma. When you look at Russian arms, you know that Churchill was right.

Neptune in the conditions of the Russian North.

In Russian state symbols form a complex past. We still do not know “where there went” double-headed eagle, why as a “heraldic patron” was elected precisely St. George the Victorious, not Andrew the First Called or Nicholas Ugodnik, veneration in Russia which was much wider. But even more complicated genealogy of the coats of arms of Russian cities, the logic of symbolism that is sometimes simply impossible to comprehend.

From the point of view of the heraldic science, emblem was intended to represent the main idea is symbolized by his formula, his DNA. But when you look, say, the emblem of the Great Ustyug (Neptune holding two jugs with flowing water), then decrypt heraldic code of this story you will hardly be able. Official coat of arms with the Roman sea god of the city received in 1780. In fact, Neptune migrated from the “signs armorial” Count Munnich, published in 1730 and was designed, according to its creators thought, to symbolize the favorable geographical position of Great Ustyug. Interestingly, the image is reinforced by the legend: that the earth down a dispenser-hero to drain the water of the two rivers, Yga and Sukhona into one – the Northern Dvina. Is a high probability that this legend was created in the same XVIII century, to somehow explain the phenomenon of Neptune in the Russian North.

Bestiary of Ivan the Terrible.

In the Russian city heraldry came rather late – when Peter I. Prior to this role was performed emblems print decorated with emblems. In 1570-ies appeared print Ivan IV, 24 logos – 12 on each side – principalities, lands, cities that make up the Muscovy. Interestingly, the lion’s share of characters is the images of animals, birds and fish. The other part – Weapon: bows, swords, sabers. Scientists argue that most of the posters did not contain any identification code places the land they symbolized, and was the fruit of the imagination of the court painters. Guided by the same or as “geniuses places” as popular Psalter and then in Russia, “physiology”. Thus Nizhny Novgorod came to symbolize the deer, Pskov – leopard (or lynx), Kazan – Basilisk (dragon), Tver – bear, Rostov – bird, Yaroslavl – fish, Astrakhan – dog Vyatka land – onions, etc.

Then hardly anyone really thought about the deep symbolism of cities. Main symbolic load on the seal of Ivan IV bore located in the center of the two-headed eagle with Saint George – on the one hand, and the Unicorn (personal emblem of Ivan the Terrible) – on the other. All the same circle, the periphery, played the role of a sovereign print extras, whose task is not so much the correct identification of the place, how to show the power of the king.

This does not mean that the areas represented by the press, was not their ancestral, authentic, characters. Were, and some of these characters goes back centuries. However, in the coordinate system of Ivan the Terrible of course they could not find his place. Thus, the Terrible himself invented printing Veliky Novgorod, which was the basis of his future “bear” coat of arms, ignoring the existence for centuries Novgorod authentic characters on stamps (Christ Pantocrator, Andrew the First rider, lion). The main reason was the fact that the local authenticity contradicts the policy of centralization of the Moscow kingdom.

The first Russian brandbook.

A century later, in 1672 was born the “Big State book” or “Czarskiy titulyarnik” which showed to a new heraldic version of the Russian lands. In the book we see the past 33 emblem. Logos of some lands that were present at the press Terrible radically evolved.

So, Rostov the Great changed the bird on deer, Yaroslavl – fish for bear, armed with axe and Ryazan replaced the horse Hiking Prince. But it is unlikely that these changes were preceded by the kind of serious study of the topic: most likely, based on the rebranding was all too free creativity of painters, not the original character of these lands. The “Titulary” formed the basis of future heraldic experiments that finally led to the loss of the primary symbolic codes of ancient Russian territories.

“We want a peacock!”.

Peter I decided to organize Russian brandbook and put in the back of this coat of arms by all the rules of European heraldry. It is interesting that the decision were military targets. To facilitate the supply of food army was placed in the cities and provinces of Russia. Shelves give the names of cities and places of residence, and in the regimental colors were to be placed the coats of arms of these territories.

In 1722 the king established a special Geroldmejstersky office tasked with writing coats of arms, including urban areas. On the role of creative director was invited Francis Earl Santee. The Italian set to work with frantic enthusiasm: first, he “brought to mind” the emblem of “Titulary” Alexei Mikhailovich, and, secondly, created several dozen coats of arms for Russian cities “from scratch”. Before the beginning of the creative process Santi sent to local city officials questionnaires in which they had to talk about the key features of their cities. It should be noted that the local Office of the attitude to “technical specification” Italian without proper enthusiasm: Answers officials were very concise and empty. True, there were cities that are treated with the utmost seriousness to the job. For example, officials have reported Serpukhov that their city is famous for the peacocks that live in one of the local monasteries. Soon overseas bird took its place of honor on the emblem of the city.

In spite of the inertness of the city offices Santi still managed to draw a roster of 97 coats of arms (the other question is how authentic are these characters?). He probably could have done more, but already in 1727, Catherine I, who ruled after the death of Peter, sent to Siberia graph with the prosecution in the conspiracy.

heraldic fever.

Next heraldic boom in Russia was in the reign of Catherine II. This was due to the reform of local government in 1775. Over a decade has created several hundred coats of arms of Russian cities. Many of them, if not most, had absolutely contrived, being a product of fiction provincial city officials and poor knowledge of the history of cities heralds. Thus, the light appeared arms of cities of Great Luke (three onions), Sumy (three bags), etc.

At this point you have and the birth of many of the “heraldic” myths local officials involved in the creative process and begin to compose legends about the origin of coats of arms. For example, dignitaries Kolomna told the story that their city was built in 1147 by a representative of the ancient patrician Roman family Kolonn, so the city is so called as it is depicted on the emblem of the pillar.

But then all went to Yaroslavl, who argued that the coat of arms in the shape of a bear with the ax was invented by the greatest prince Yaroslav, “for the reason that he was marching in Rostov on the Strait of Kotorosli the Volga, found the bear, and with the help of the people of his retinue killed him.”

In the XIX century the authorities tried to somehow organize heraldic fever, because – in a burst of creativity – in some cities appeared already approved several coats of arms. I had to give up too much.

After the revolution, the city waiting for a new boom heraldry stamp of creativity, but the “stigma territories” by Soviet artists were good except for the signification circles of hell, rather than for cities, villages living people. After the collapse of the Soviet Union began heraldic Renaissance, which was expressed in the mass return to the cities, “Catherine branding.”

What do we have?

Several centuries of experiments in heraldry Russian cities came to nothing. Thus, the ancient Russian city with a long tradition, with a light hand of the central government got empty meaningless symbols and plunged into depression. Coat of arms, designed to unite citizens in a single community, reflect the essence of the character of the city, and has remained in my dreams. It must be admitted that all the centuries of work in the field of heraldry Russian cities was done on the knee. All true symbols of ancient lands were ignored even when creating a print Ivan IV.

In subsequent sovereigns situation only worsened signs are moving farther away from the signified, ancestral characters have lost all hope of being discovered courtiers King of Arms. Rock was present and that the key role in the creation of coats of arms played by foreigners.

Symbol of the city plays a vital role in establishing a strong connection between the city and citizen. City emblem is a binder between the individual citizen and the urban community, and the stronger and more substantial character, the relationship between man and the city stronger.

“Hindustan is ours” and “Russian soldiers washing their boots in the Indian Ocean” – it could become a reality in the distant 1801, when Paul I, together with Napoleon attempted the conquest of India.

Impregnable Asia.

How successful was on the development of Russian East, just as it proved to be unsuccessful in the south. In this regard, Russia is constantly haunted by bad luck: the harsh steppes and Pamir mountain ranges have always proved an insurmountable obstacle to Russian. But it probably was not the geographical obstacles, and in the absence of clear objectives.

By the end of the XVIII century Russia firmly entrenched in the southern borders of the Ural mountain range, but the raids of nomads and intractable Khanate prevented promotion empire to the south. However, Russia is not only glanced at the still unconquered Emirate of Bukhara and Khiva Khanate, but then – in the direction of the unknown and mysterious India.

At the same time, Britain, whose American colony disappeared like a ripe fruit, concentrated its efforts on India, occupies an important strategic position in the Asian region. While Russia skidded on the way to Central Asia, England, moving farther and farther to the north, was seriously considering plans for conquest and colonization mountainous regions of India, favorable for farming. Interests of the two nations is about may be experiencing.

“Napoleon’s plans”.

Its plans for India was also France: but it is not so much interested in the area, as the hated British, strengthen its rule there. Time to knock them out of India was the most suitable. Britain torn by wars with the kingdoms of Hindustan, significantly weakened his army in the region. Napoleon Bonaparte had to find just the right ally.

First Consul turned his attention to Russia. “With your lord we change the face of the world!” – Napoleon flattered Russian envoy. And he has not lost. Paul I, known for its grandiose plans to join the Russian Malta or the administration of a military expedition to Brazil willingly went to the rapprochement with Bonaparte. Russian support for the king of France was interested in nothing less. The goal – the weakening of England – they had in common.

However, the first idea of ​​a joint campaign against India gave Paul I, and Napoleon only supported this initiative. Paul, according to the historian A. Katsura, was well aware that “the possession of the keys to the world hidden somewhere in the center of Eurasia.” Eastern dream two major powers had all the chances to become a reality.

Indian blitzkrieg.

Preparing for the campaign was conducted in secret, all information transmitted mostly through couriers orally. Roll a joint to India set aside a record time – 50 days. The Allies relied on the support of the Maharaja of Punjab Type Said that would accelerate progress of the expedition. On the French side was supposed to make the 35000th army led by glorified general Andre Massena , and a Russian – the same number of Cossacks led by Ataman of the Don Army Vasily Orlov. In support of an elderly chieftain Paul ordered to appoint an officer Matvei Platov, Ataman of the Don Army of the future and a hero of the war in 1812. In the short term for the campaign were prepared: 41 Cavalry Regiment and two companies of horse artillery, which amounted to 27,500 people and 55,000 horses.

Nothing boded trouble, but a grand idea still under threat. Blame the British officer John Malcolm, who in the midst of preparing the Russian-French campaign first made ​​an alliance with the Afghans, and then with the Shah of Persia, who had recently sworn allegiance to France. Napoleon this turn of events is clearly not happy and he temporarily “freeze” the project.

But the ambitious Paul used their endeavors to bring to an end and February 28, 1801 sent don an army to conquer India. This Grand and ambitious plan he outlined Orlov in parting letter, noting that wherever you are appointed, the British have “their establishments trade, purchased, or money, or weapons. You have all this ruin, oppressed owners to release land to bring Russia into the same addiction, it the English”.

Back to home.

It was clear that the expedition to India was not planned properly. Orlov was unable to gather the necessary information about the route through Central Asia, he had to lead an army on the cards traveler F. Ephraim, composed in 1770-80’s. Did not work Ataman assemble and 35 thousandth army – a campaign acted on the strength of 22 thousand people.

Winter Journey on horseback through the Kalmyk steppe was a stern test for even the hardened Cossacks. Their movement hindered wet from the melted snow cloaks, and rivers, only began to break free from the ice, and sand storms. Was not enough bread and fodder. But the troops were ready to go further.

All changed murder of Paul I on the night of 11 to 12 March 1801. “Where are the Cossacks?” – This was one of the first questions newly Emperor Alexander I to Count Lieven, participated in the development of the route. Sent a messenger with a handwritten Alexander order to terminate the campaign caught the expedition, only 23 of March in the village Machetnom Saratov province. Cossacks were told to return to their homes. Curiously, the story repeated itself five years ago, when after the death of Catherine II was returned, sent in the Caspian Dagestan land expedition Zubov-Tsitsianov.

English track.

Another 24 October 1800 was made an unsuccessful attempt on Napoleon, which were involved in the British. Most likely, on the plans of Bonaparte reacted English officials, afraid to lose their millions, they brought the East India company. But refusal to participate in the campaign of Napoleon the activities of the English agents had been forwarded to the Russian Emperor. Many researchers, in particular historian Cyril Serebrinsky, see the death of Paul the English track.

This is indirectly confirmed by the facts. For example, one of the developers of the Indian campaign and the main conspirator Count Palen was seen in the relations with the British. In addition to the British Isles generously supplied money mistress St. Petersburg British Ambassador Charles Uitvorda to that, according to researchers, prepared the ground for conspiracy against Paul I. It is also interesting that Paul’s correspondence with Napoleon 1800-1801 years was bought in 1816 from a private individual Great Britain and subsequently burned.

New Perspectives After the death of Paul Alexander I to the surprise of many, continued to build relationships with Napoleon, but they tried to build a more favorable position for Russia. The young king hated arrogance and gluttony of the French ruler. In 1807, during a meeting at Tilsit Napoleon tried to persuade Alexander to sign an agreement on the division of the Ottoman Empire and the new campaign in India. Later on February 2, 1808, in a letter to him Bonaparte as expounded his plans: “If an army of 50 thousand Russian and French right through Constantinople in Asia and would appear on the Euphrates, it would make England tremble and threw her to the feet of the mainland”.

It is not known how this attitude to the idea of ​​the Emperor of Russia, but he preferred to any initiative did not come from France, and from Russia. In subsequent years already without France Russia begins to actively explore Central Asia and to establish trade relations with India, excluding in this case every adventure.

Several centuries enthusiasts and adventurers unsuccessfully search the library of Ivan the Terrible. Serious scientists impress – search meaningless. But hope still remains.

Birth of a legend.

Leave a trace in the history of two ways: to create something brilliant or mess things up something crazy. But if a person is not able to be born a genius and laurels Gerostrat does not appeal – there is a third way: to become part of the historical myth. How does this happen? Cnachala arises legend. Then she acquires details and “evidence” of those who want to get their “15 minutes of fame.” Over time, the stories of these “witnesses” are beginning to refer to the descendants – and here’s the finished historical myth, in which real people take pride of place. Let’s see how to create the myth of the library, and who, thanks to him, “heritage” in history. Thus, the legend: a unique library, which was collected by the Byzantine emperors for centuries, brought to Moscow Princess Sophia Palaeologus as a dowry to her husband – Grand Prince Ivan III. To protect the precious scrolls from fire, the Italian architect Aristotle Fioravanti designed for special library cache. The last owner of the library was Ivan the Terrible, after his death the library was gone.

Witnesses.

Now go to the “witnesses.” “Livonian Chronicle” end of the XVI century, tells the story of Pastor Johann Vettermana, was captured by the Russian during the Livonian War. Having heard about the scholarship and righteous life pastor, Ivan the Terrible, invited him to Moscow and ordered the prisoner Diakitè show your library. Seeing many priceless books, Pastor said that “I would give all his possessions, even all her children, so that only those books … brought many benefits to Christianity.” Must be a lot of fervor Holy Father amused clerks: after all, the prisoner had no children, no property. He offered to translate into Russian part of the manuscripts. Looking around the store, the pastor realized that the work ahead is possible – for a lifetime. Suddenly forgot about the “benefits of Christianity,” and hurried tactfully refuse.

Amusing story, but it is improbable. Really, Ivan the Terrible were better things to do than brag “filthy peasant” for its library. Of course, the pastor nafantaziroval, but fantasy has immortalized his name in the pages of “Livonian Chronicle” by making part of the myth of the library of Ivan the Terrible. We still hear about Vettermane.

In the XIX century historian Ivan Zabelin studying archives times of Peter I, the sexton found reports Conon Osipova. He recounted a story he heard from a friend – clerk Vasily Makarieva. Performing certain order of the princess Sophia, clerk explore dungeons Kremlin and stumbled upon a secret room, cluttered trunks. Makariev somehow decided that it was stored in them precious manuscripts of the library of Ivan the Terrible. Having the light of day, he reported everything to Sophia, but the princess ordered forget what they saw. For many years, the clerk kept the secret, told her only Osipov. Quirky sexton decided to try their luck and find the treasured room. But given Makarieva move turned buried in the ground, to get to the cache alone is unthinkable. I had to go to the authorities. V1724, Peter I ordered to clear the underpass and look for the library. Digging a long time, but to no avail. However, the sexton was not discouraged. Ten years, he continued to fill the high court petitions for new excavations in the Kremlin, and finally has his diggers made ​​one more attempt to reach a secret room. Vain.

Pointer …

As time went on. In 1822, Professor, University of Dorpat Christopher von Dabelov wrote an article “On the Law Faculty in Dorpat.” Among other things, he cites a document, which he called “Index of an unknown person.” It was no less a list of manuscripts kept in the library of Ivan the Terrible. This document, according to the professor, he was sent from the archives of the city Pernau. Article interested colleagues Dabelova – Professor Walter Klossiusa. Perhaps list was our old friend – Pastor Vetterman (by then “Livonian captive” has become part of the myth of the library)? Klossius met Dabelovym, but he said that he had a copy of the document, and he sent the original back to Pernau. How could an experienced archivist to part with such a treasure? Cursing oversight colleagues Klossius hurried to the archive Pernova. But as the list of vanished into thin air, he did not appear in any inventory.

Nevertheless, v1834 year, after the death Dabelova, Klossius published an article “The Library of Grand Prince Vasily Ivanovich and Ivan Vasilyevich king”, which described in detail the discovery of professors and announced the list of the manuscripts of “Index” – the works of Titus Libya, Tacitus, Polybius, Suetonius, Cicero, Virgil, Aristophanes, Pindar, etc. Myth overgrown all new “detail”.

Since the beginning of the twentieth century and up to the last days of his life (1949), the library was looking archaeologist Ignatius Stelletsky. He asserted that, in v1914 Pernove found the same coveted “Index.” But he had only to rewrite it as soon document … gone. Scientists have raised Stelletskogo laugh. Nevertheless, he methodically and persistently sought the royal library in Vologda, Alexander settlement and, of course, in the Moscow Kremlin. In 1933, the Stelletsky delivers a memo to Stalin and seeking permission to excavate. Digging long, the result is predictable – zero.

Was there a library?

Now back to reality and think: Was there a library? It’s hard to imagine that in 1453 fleeing from the Turks defenders of Constantinople had loaded on the ship and take hundreds of books. But suppose a miracle happened, a library rescued and brought to Moscow. She could have been killed in a fire, it could pull apart the Polish invaders in the Time of Troubles. But who knows what. And it was valuable library book? Academician Dmitry Likhachev said: “Even if the library of Ivan the Terrible discover discovery will not be of great scientific value. A significant part of this collection were the church books that Sophia Palaeologus was brought to Russia from Byzantium, to pray in their own language”.

There is another interesting version of the library of Ivan the Terrible … is already found! Not all, of course, only a small part. Here is what the newspaper “Trud” November 22, 1944: “The cabinets USSR State Library named after VI Lenin kept many thousands of ancient manuscripts and manuscripts. Among other … five books in large format vintage leather bindings from the personal collection of Ivan the Terrible. “Can journalists make a mistake? But nearly half a century later Head of the Department of Manuscripts of the Russian State Library (former “Lenin Library”) Victor Deriagin confirmed: “We have stored 600 thousand manuscripts, of which 60 thousand ancient, more than three hundred Greek (mainly Byzantine). Some date back to the VI century BC It is possible that there are also books Sophia Paleologos”.

So it is time to recall the famous Russian proverb, and stop looking for “gloves in his belt?”